U.S.–Native American Treaties Virtually all inhabitable land in North America was occupied by Native Americans when Europeans arrived. By the 1990s, Indian [Native American] reservations in the United States represented about 2.5 percent of the country. A study of treaties reveals the changing nature of Indian and white relations. . . . Between 1778 and the early 1800s, federal power over Indians expanded dramatically, especially in the eastern states. Eventually all tribes came to be regarded as quasi-sovereign peoples, not national equals. This view led to diminished tribal control over their destiny, their increasing exploitation, and federal paternalism. Tribes came to be regarded as dependent nations, and treaties were considered in the same light as other statutes of the U.S. Congress. It may come as a surprise that, despite military conflicts between the federal government and various tribes, the United States never formally declared war on hostile Indians. Treaties with Indians were negotiated by the president of the United States and were binding when approved by the Indians and two-thirds of the U.S. Senate. It is important to note that a treaty could not provide funds for Indians; monetary commitments required separate congressional action. Nearly 400 treaties were negotiated. The greatest number, nearly 260, were arranged during the great westward expansion of white settlers following the War of 1812. The majority of these treaties, 230, involved Indian lands. A block of 76 treaties called for Indian removal from their lands and resettlement on other lands. Two tribes, the Potawatomi and Ojibwa (Chippewa), negotiated 42 treaties each, a record number. . Source: Wendell H. Oswalt, This Land Was Theirs: A Study of Native North Americans, Eighth Edition, 2006 Question 1: What was the primary purpose of treaties between the United States and Native American tribes during the great westward expansion following the War of 1812?

U.S.–Native American Treaties Virtually all inhabitable land in North America was occupied by Native Americans when Europeans arrived. By the 1990s, Indian [Native American] reservations in the United States represented about 2.5 percent of the country. A study of treaties reveals the changing nature of Indian and white relations. . . . Between 1778 and the early 1800s, federal power over Indians expanded dramatically, especially in the eastern states. Eventually all tribes came to be regarded as quasi-sovereign peoples, not national equals. This view led to diminished tribal control over their destiny, their increasing exploitation, and federal paternalism. Tribes came to be regarded as dependent nations, and treaties were considered in the same light as other statutes of the U.S. Congress. It may come as a surprise that, despite military conflicts between the federal government and various tribes, the United States never formally declared war on hostile Indians. Treaties with Indians were negotiated by the president of the United States and were binding when approved by the Indians and two-thirds of the U.S. Senate. It is important to note that a treaty could not provide funds for Indians; monetary commitments required separate congressional action. Nearly 400 treaties were negotiated. The greatest number, nearly 260, were arranged during the great westward expansion of white settlers following the War of 1812. The majority of these treaties, 230, involved Indian lands. A block of 76 treaties called for Indian removal from their lands and resettlement on other lands. Two tribes, the Potawatomi and Ojibwa (Chippewa), negotiated 42 treaties each, a record number. . Source: Wendell H. Oswalt, This Land Was Theirs: A Study of Native North Americans, Eighth Edition, 2006 Question 2: How were treaties with Native American tribes ratified in the United States?

U.S.–Native American Treaties Virtually all inhabitable land in North America was occupied by Native Americans when Europeans arrived. By the 1990s, Indian [Native American] reservations in the United States represented about 2.5 percent of the country. A study of treaties reveals the changing nature of Indian and white relations. . . . Between 1778 and the early 1800s, federal power over Indians expanded dramatically, especially in the eastern states. Eventually all tribes came to be regarded as quasi-sovereign peoples, not national equals. This view led to diminished tribal control over their destiny, their increasing exploitation, and federal paternalism. Tribes came to be regarded as dependent nations, and treaties were considered in the same light as other statutes of the U.S. Congress. It may come as a surprise that, despite military conflicts between the federal government and various tribes, the United States never formally declared war on hostile Indians. Treaties with Indians were negotiated by the president of the United States and were binding when approved by the Indians and two-thirds of the U.S. Senate. It is important to note that a treaty could not provide funds for Indians; monetary commitments required separate congressional action. Nearly 400 treaties were negotiated. The greatest number, nearly 260, were arranged during the great westward expansion of white settlers following the War of 1812. The majority of these treaties, 230, involved Indian lands. A block of 76 treaties called for Indian removal from their lands and resettlement on other lands. Two tribes, the Potawatomi and Ojibwa (Chippewa), negotiated 42 treaties each, a record number. . Source: Wendell H. Oswalt, This Land Was Theirs: A Study of Native North Americans, Eighth Edition, 2006 Question 3: According to Wendell H. Oswalt, what is one historical circumstance surrounding the rights of Native Americans?

Selected Events in Native American Relations with the United States 1879 Carlisle Indian Industrial School founded 1887 Dawes Severalty Act allotted reservation lands to individual Native Americans 1924 Indian Citizenship Act granted United States citizenship to indigenous Americans 1934 Indian Reorganization Act attempted to reverse the impact of the Dawes Act by restoring land to reservations 1968 AIM (American Indian Movement) founded to ensure past treaties made with the United States honored; AIM occupied Alcatraz Island in 1969 and headquarters of the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1972 1970 President Nixon called for a new era of self-determination for Native American peoples 1988 Indian Gaming Regulatory Act affirmed the right of Native Americans to conduct gaming operations (casinos, etc.) on tribal lands 2009 President Obama established White House Tribal Nations Conference to encourage dialogue between government and tribal leaders Question 4: Which event from the timeline represents a significant shift in the U.S. government's policy towards Native American self-determination?

Selected Events in Native American Relations with the United States 1879 Carlisle Indian Industrial School founded 1887 Dawes Severalty Act allotted reservation lands to individual Native Americans 1924 Indian Citizenship Act granted United States citizenship to indigenous Americans 1934 Indian Reorganization Act attempted to reverse the impact of the Dawes Act by restoring land to reservations 1968 AIM (American Indian Movement) founded to ensure past treaties made with the United States honored; AIM occupied Alcatraz Island in 1969 and headquarters of the Bureau of Indian Affairs in 1972 1970 President Nixon called for a new era of self-determination for Native American peoples 1988 Indian Gaming Regulatory Act affirmed the right of Native Americans to conduct gaming operations (casinos, etc.) on tribal lands 2009 President Obama established White House Tribal Nations Conference to encourage dialogue between government and tribal leaders Question 5: Based on this document, what is one effort to address the rights of Native Americans?